Buddhism
Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the Indian religions.[39] The influence of Yoga is also visible in Buddhism which is distinguished by its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states.[40][41]
Yogacara Buddhism
Yogacara (Sanskrit: “Practice of Yoga [Union]“[42] ), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries. Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva.[43] The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in order to reach enlightenment.[44]
Ch’an (Seon/Zen) Buddhism
Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit “dhyana” via the Chinese “ch’an”[45]) is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga.[41] In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances.[46] This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices.[47] Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.[48]
Tibetan Buddhism
Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, practitioners progress to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with Mahā yoga, continuing to Anu yoga and ultimately undertaking the highest practice, Ati yoga. In the Sarma traditions, the Anuttara yoga class is equivalent. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. Timing in movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama’s summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to Dumo, the generation of heat in one’s own body, as being “the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga” (Chang, 1993, p7). Chang also claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.
Islam
The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).[49] The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, (“Pool of Nectar)” was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.[50]
Malaysia’s top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements of “Hindu spiritual teachings” and could lead to blasphemy and is thereforeharaam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as “insulting”.[51] Sisters in Islam, a women’s rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said they would continue with their yoga classes.[52] The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras,[53] and states that teachings such as uniting of a human with God is not consistent with Islamic philosophy.[54]
Christianity
In 1989, the Vatican declared that Eastern meditation practices such as Zen and yoga can “degenerate into a cult of the body.” In spite of the Vatican statement, many Roman Catholics bring elements of Yoga, Buddhism, and Hinduism into their spiritual practices.[55]
Tantra
Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.[56] This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.[56]
During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate’s previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the “heart,” for meditation and worship.[57]
Styles of modern day yoga
For those who are just beginning to practice yoga, selection of the most appropriate style can be a daunting task. While most yoga classes are rooted in the physical discipline to develop control of the body, there are a variety of styles with which to accomplish this goal. Currently, a variety of styles are taught in yoga classes. These are some of the most common forms: Ashtanga, Bikram, Hatha, Iyengar, and Vinyasa flow.
Goal of yoga
The goal of yoga may range from improving health to achieving Moksha.[58] Within the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism the goal of yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world ofBrahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all things.[59] For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service to Svayam bhagavan itself may be the ultimate goal of the yoga process, where the goal is to enjoy an eternal relationship with Vishnu.[60]
